![]() Different lossy algorithms throw out different kinds of data, but effects of doing that can stack up and become noticeable. mpg files, you'll need to be careful about re-encoding them: you won't break the file or anything, but the results might not look as good as if you had started with the original file. answer can work if you have access to the original video, but if you only have these. But this means that lossy-compressed files also don't have many of the things that lossless algorithms look for.īecause of this, I'm afraid you're mostly out of luck. Anyway, once they've done these tricks to make the file more compressible, then they compress it in the usual way. In audio compression, these are called psychoacoustic algorithms, because it's all about changing the audio in ways that a human mind won't detect I assume there's a similar word for video compression, but I don't know what it is. In its simplest sense, it alters the file in certain ways to make it compress better, but it tries to do this in ways that the user won't notice. Lossy compression isn't so different, really. Interestingly, it is possible to make files that compression would actually make larger, but from a realistic standpoint, files like that do not occur very often. That's why double-compression doesn't usually work very well: after you compress a file once, you've already taken out most of the things that made it compressible. Most ordinary files do, which is why compression generally works well, but compressed files usually don't (that is, after all, the point of compression). The catch is that for this to work, the file has to have a considerable number of repeated sequences of bytes. As a bit of a contrived example, let's say your file has several instances of 100 spaces: a compressed version of the file might create a very short code that means 100 spaces, and replace those instances with this. Install snzip: If you don’t already have snzip installed on your system, you can install it using your system’s package manager.Most lossless compression (like the algorithms used in gzip, bzip2, and zip) works by eliminating long repeated series of bytes in a file. ![]() Here are the steps to decompress a Snappy-compressed reduce output file using snzip: One such tool is snzip, which is a command-line utility for Snappy compression/decompression. To decompress a Snappy-compressed reduce output file, you need to use a command-line tool that supports the Snappy compression format. How to Decompress Snappy-Compressed Reduce Output Files When a reduce output file is compressed with Snappy, its file extension is typically. The output files generated by the reduce phase can be compressed using various compression algorithms, including Snappy. In this phase, the intermediate key-value pairs generated by the map phase are aggregated and reduced to a smaller set of key-value pairs that are written to output files. In Hadoop, the reduce phase is the second phase of a MapReduce job. Snappy is also designed to work well with various data formats, including text, binary, and multimedia data. Snappy achieves high compression/decompression speeds by using a simple and efficient algorithm that is optimized for modern CPUs. Snappy is widely used in various big data processing frameworks, including Hadoop, because of its speed and low memory usage. It was created by Google and released under the Apache license. Snappy is a compression/decompression library that is designed for speed and efficiency. We assume that you have a basic understanding of Hadoop and its ecosystem, as well as some familiarity with the Linux command line interface. In this article, we will explain how to decompress Hadoop reduce output files ending with Snappy. However, to work with these compressed files, you need to know how to decompress them. Snappy is a fast, open-source, and widely-used compression library that is supported by Hadoop and other big data processing frameworks. As a data scientist or software engineer, you might have come across Hadoop reduce output files ending with Snappy compression.
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![]() A hot dog, as defined the Oxford dictionary, is a frankfurter, especially one served hot in a long, soft roll and topped with various condiments. A sandwich, as defined by the Oxford English Dictionary, is an item of food consisting of two pieces of bread with meat, cheese, or other filling between them, eaten as a light meal. The answer is fairly simple and the National Hot Dog and Sausage Counsel agrees. Those who voted in favor of a hot dog being considered a sandwich do not stand alone in their position. Simply said, it does not share the same cultural connotations as a sandwich. ![]() The hot dog is a sandwich debate comes from a technicality: where do you draw the line on how much the bread covers the filling? 3), the KFC Double Down (fails No. Really?! The distinction between a sandwich and a hot dog is common knowledge to all of us. Whether a taco is a sandwich? Even the most storied, experienced, scientifically inclined master charcuterie-maker takes great pleasure in creating a comprehensive hot dog menu (see main image). Scroll down for very convincing reasons why a hot dog is not a sandwich. Please send comments to They are vertical in orientation. However, it should not be confused with a sandwich in any way. You have a sandwich, and from that you can have hamburgers, PB&Js, Oreos, ice cream sandwiches, Reubens, subs, French Dips, Clubs the list goes on and on. A sandwich can have any filling your heart desires, but the outside parts are pivotal. Nationally, a hot dog is a sandwich-like product. A dent in the validity of that origin story: According to the NHDSC, historians have been unable to locate the cartoon. You recline in your seats and create a flight-like experience as you float through 3602 feet of winding. Tatsu is the tallest fastest and longest roller coaster in the world. Known as a hypercoaster, this ride has super-fast speeds and breathtaking drops. Smooth but incredibly fast Goliath is one of the tallest and fastest rides in the world. ![]() As a diehard roller coaster fan, I rarely get scared on roller coasters. As the world's first 4D roller coaster, you know X2 is an intense experience. › travelguide › best-rides-at-magicSix Flags Magic Mountain Rides An In-Depth Guide - Tripster › travelguide › best-rides-at-magic CachedX2. Six Flags Magic Mountain Rides An In-Depth Guide - Tripster Just announced Six Flags Magic Mountain will soon be home to California's largest single-site commercial solar energy and storage project with the installation of a 12.37-megawatt solar carport. Six Flags Magic Mountain in California - The Thrill Capital. Six Flags Magic Mountain is known as the undisputed "Thrill Capital of the World" with a record 20 world-class roller coasters - more than any other theme park on the planet - and is home to over 100 games and attractions for thrill seekers of all. Visit Six Flags in Los Angeles - Six Flags Magic Mountain If the jungle Jim for kids is nice why can't the other rides for older people be nice to.Six Flags Magic Mountain Hotels. ![]() My great grandkids came to visit and the oldest even said "It's a dump they need to fix this place up" I AGREE! Even in the little kid area there's this rainbow thing that sprays the little kids with water it doesn't work anymore, so dumb. You now need to pay extra for parking, what the heck! The waves in the wave pool were broken for 3 weeks, FIX IT! We went there for fun not for a dumpy place! The lights on one of one of the rides were broken. It needs to be cleaned it's a gross place to be I would rather stay home. Is this place is not a raging water quality, but it is a good park. Let finish up by saying I grew up in California going to water parks and theme parks more than I can count. We got the annual pass that gives us free parking every visit and is good for all six flags parks. All in all, we had a great time and got an annual pass for the year. All the employee's working that day were super nice and friendly. Otherwise every other food stand the lines moved quickly. The only real complaint I have about this place is the food line was long and they only had 2 people working the cash registers and there was no ice in the self service soda machine. I have to agree that they should have more rafts for the rides and we did have an ant problem by our lounge chair, but in Hurricane Harbor defense our grandkids left there sodas and food out. A lot of reviews on yelp and trip advisor knock this place for not having enough tube and ants. As it get more crowded the line and wait time get longer. ![]() I advised to get there when they open as you can get on the rides pretty quickly. We spent 7 hours at the park and were able to ride everything more than once. I asked an employee why and I was told they did not have enough life guards on duty to keep everyone safe. All the rides were working except for the wave lazy river. Once the gates opened we were able to get through Security pretty fast. the place didn't open till 11:00 so we had to wait in a short line until the gates opened. We got there at 10:30 in the morning, and we were able to park close to the entrance. If we would have gone to Sun Slash the other water park in Mesa it would have cost more. After paying for tickets, parking, lockers, 2 lounge and the meal plan it run about 400 bucks for five us. One thing everyone complained about was the cost. We decided to go and keep an opened mind about the place. Read the reviews and even watched YouTube video on the place. ![]() Knew about Hurricane Harbor for a while now. ![]() The cards are formatted in a few different ways. It’s only 132 cards, so you can easily run through the entire deck within a few hours or less. If you’re searching for a quick review of cardiology, consider the Boards and Beyond Cardio deck. Boards and Beyond – Cardio Anki Deck Deck Name In the cardiology section, built-in sound effects correspond to the heartbeat based on the condition.Ĥ. However, screenshots from the associated source are also attached to give you more in-depth information on the topic. The cards are formatted similarly to the original Lightyear in that there are fill-in-the-blank words. You can choose to review by subdeck or do all the cards mixed. This deck also organizes the cards by modules into subdecks. The primary difference is that there are more images from varied sources, such as First Aid 2019, Pixorize, Picmonic, and DirtyUSMLE. Cheesy Lightyear Boards and Beyond Anki Deck Deck NameĪ Redditor with the name u/Cheesy_Doritos decided to update the Lightyear Boards and Beyond deck. What’s also great about the deck is that the creator added a mnemonic to people students remember certain concepts.ģ. Typically, remembering one or two side effects gives you a better chance to remember the other effects. If you’re trying to recall thiazide diuretics’ side effects, all of the information will be on one card rather than adding many cards. However, the payoff is that you won’t be scattered with unrelated information in the deck. Many cards are a little longer, requiring more initial effort. This includes pharmacology, behavioral science, cell biology, biostatistics, and infectious disease. This deck covers a variety of topics from Boards and Beyond, such as:Īdditionally, a small portion of the deck consists of basic science subjects. The remainder of the cards come from First Aid, USMLE-Rx, and various class lectures. 90% of the cards are sourced from Boards and Beyond. ![]() Soze Step 1 Master Anki deck is another popular deck to prepare for Step 1. Overall, the deck gives a good grasp of everything to prepare you for the USMLE Step 1.Ģ. You can also choose to download decks from Lolnotacop and Zanki pharm cards. In the latest update of the deck, Redditor u/Infinity2k has offered supplementary options. Some images with texts are blurred, requiring you to recall the keyword. The cards are mostly delivered in a cloze format with a fill-in-the-blank term. This deck is neatly organized using hierarchical tags to find topics from the 400+ videos sourced. Most cards feature snapshots of the associated section from Boards and Beyond, First Aid, or a helpful diagram. Of the total deck, 18.7k cards are from Boards and Beyond videos, 1.8k from the First Aid book, 1k from Pathoma, and another 1.1k from UworldRX. The Lightyear deck step 1 deck is consists of 22,5000 cards and one of the most comprehensive Board and Beyond decks out there. ![]() Cheesy Lightyear Boards and Beyond Anki Deck.We’ll be reviewing the following boards and beyond Anki decks: Also, some decks are focused on specific subjects, while others are more all-encompassing. Some are suited for studying for Step 1, while others are for Step 2. Best Boards and Beyond Anki DecksĮvery deck is unique and designed for a specific goal. ![]() We’ll cover the best decks that review Boards and Beyond material. It’s a comprehensive resource that covers nearly every topic on a medical school curriculum.įortunately, there are pre-made Boards and Beyond Anki decks to help you retain information and pass the USMLE step 1 or 2. One solution to help with overwhelm is the Boards and Beyond video subscription service. As a med student, you’re likely trying to make sense of all the wealth of information thrown at you. In medical school, half the battle is learning how to study and, more specifically, what to study. ![]() I used my mom's old hand mixer to blend them up "just so", keeping a bit of texture. I did keep the white potato them, using some Eastern White Potatoes, but used a delicious combo of coconut milk, olive oil, and the cozy herbs of the season: rosemary and thyme! Last year we went WAY out there, so I wanted to reign it in just a tad and get back to my roots. You know I actually debated on making a classic (vegan) buttermilk ultra-smooth mashed potato recipe or one a little fancier to share with you this year. This plant-based cream cheese uses cashews and coconut to create a luxurious cream cheese without any oil. The way to guarantee some subtle quality texture is to LEAVE THE SKIN on the potatoes! We all know I DO NOT have time for peeling anything and I'd never waste the precious skin of our lovely produce options (looking at you kiwi and mango skins!) With your choice of thyme, rosemary, chives, and/or oregano from the cookbook Crave, Eat, Heal by Annie Oliverio recipe shared by Glue & Glitter. I need some texture (not always I'll take mashed potatoes any way!). I think it goes along with my whole " soup and smoothie" dislike. There was no texture they were so smooth! I'm all for ultra-smooth mash, but I also love some texture, some rustic texture. While I was growing up and eating gallons of my grandpa's FAMOUS decadent, buttery, ultra-smooth mashed potatoes during the holidays, those were like edible clouds. From evoking all the fall and winter holiday feels to just a hearty " stick-to-your-bones" nourishment. Besides mac and cheese, I think mashed potatoes just have to be one of the coziest comfort foods. We all know how much of a potato addict, queen, obsessed-lover I am and as of last year, you also know that my love for mashed potatoes runs deep. It's also delicious when paired with crispy tofu pancetta or a spoonful of freshly made vegan pesto.An easy and delicious dinner side dish recipe for Rustic Rosemary Thyme Mashed Potatoes! They're gluten-free, vegan, paleo, and allergy-free perfect for the holidays or as a simple healthy take on classic comfort food! Top this soup off with a squeeze of fresh lemon juice, homemade cashew cream, and chopped fresh parsley. Serving suggestions for vegan celeriac soup ![]() Once the celeriac is cooked through, turn off the heat, remove the bay leaves, and blitz until smooth using a hand blender (you could also transfer to a larger, more powerful blender).Īdjust the seasoning and serve. If necessary, add a little more water or stock. Start with half of the zest and build from there depending on how much lemon flavour you want to come through.Ĭook for another 5 minutes or until the celeriac is tender. Stir well, bring to a gentle simmer, and cook for 20 minutes.Īfter 20 minutes, stir in the lemon zest and plant-based milk. Stir well and cook for a couple of minutes.Īdd the vegan stock, dried thyme, bay leaves, and nutritional yeast. Next, add the diced celeriac, apple, and potato. Season with salt and pepper and cook for 5-6 minutes, stirring now and then until they start to soften. Heat the oil in a large saucepan on medium heat and add the chopped onions. How to make vegan celeriac soup with apple, lemon & thyme ![]() Lower in carbs than potatoes or other root vegetables, it is a popular replacement for use in side dishes such as mash. Is celeriac good for you?Ĭeleriac is high in fibre, low in fat, and packed full of healthy nutrients. ![]() While celery stalks are great for adding base flavour to soups, stews, risottos, and sauces – not to mention a key component of a Waldorf salad – celeriac is a star ingredient in its own right. Are celery and celeriac related?Ĭelery and celeriac are closely related, however they are used very differently in the kitchen. Its creamy texture makes it perfect for mashing, roasting, or blending up into a smooth soup like this one. What is celeriac?Ĭeleriac or 'celery root' is a root vegetable with a rough, knobbly exterior and white flesh on the inside.Ĭeleriac is very similar in taste to crunchy celery stalks, but with a slightly earthier and nuttier flavour. Subscribe to keep in touch and get a free download of The Vegan Kitchen – My Top 10 Tips. For more simple soup ideas, see these recipes for vegan pea and mint soup and spicy pinto bean soup. I like to add a diced potato to help thicken it all, before removing the bay leaves and blending until very smooth. Even the lemon zest is used sparingly to start with. While many of my other soup recipes include bold flavours such as garlic, this one is more delicate to let the celeriac come through. Combining smooth and creamy celeriac with the subtle flavours of apple, lemon, and thyme, it's a winter warmer that's both gluten-free and dairy-free. This vegan celeriac soup provides a simple yet delicious bowl of root vegetable goodness. ![]() Torches can now be crafted using charcoal, making them the first renewable light source in the game that is also obtainable and permanent. Torches are now used to craft jack o'lanterns. This was planned to add with the Halloween Update. Notch originally planned for torches to become temporary light sources that would eventually burn out and require re-lighting with flint and steel. Torches can no longer be placed on tree leaves, but only in fast mode. Torches no longer snap to other potential valid attachments once their supporting block is removed.įalling blocks are implemented, which can be broken by torches. The top red part from the torch has been removed. When removing a block, a torch now moves to another available block. Torches can be placed in the air without any block supporting them and do not have a top texture. Torches currently renders as block in inventory. Notch suggests adding torches, which would "light up a 3×3 tile" area. įor a more in-depth breakdown of changes to textures and models, including a set of renders for each state combination, see /Asset history Java Edition pre-Classic If the torch is a wall torch, the top of the torch faces opposite to this direction. The face of the block that the torch is attached to. ![]() The direction the top of the torch is facing. While the block is in the process of being broken Due to their lower light level, soul torches do not melt snow or ice. Soul torches give off a light level of 10. Torches also melt snow layers within 2 blocks and ice within 3 blocks ( taxicab distance). If there is an air block under the torch, the falling blocks fall through the torch onto the surface below. Falling blocks break if they fall onto a solid block with a torch above it. Gravity-affected blocks like sand and gravel will not start falling if the space immediately beneath is occupied by a torch. More information about placement can be found at Opacity/Placement. Being non-solid, torches have no collision box. Torches can be placed on the top or the sides of most solid blocks, although some blocks require sneaking. Torches in various positions on chiseled stone bricks. A piston pushes it or moves a block into its space.Its attachment block is moved, removed, or destroyed.Torches can be broken instantly using anything, and drop themselves as an item.Ī torch is removed and drops itself as an item if: If the original torches are still in position, then they drop as items, while the new torches take their place. Whenever the ender dragon dies or is re-summoned using end crystals, the four torches on the exit portal regenerates. In the End, four torches generate as part of the exit portal, around the second bedrock block from the top. Torches also generate around bonus chests if each side has a block at the same height around it. Torches can be found generated among the supports in a mineshaft's corridors, as part of village lamp posts and most houses, in various rooms in strongholds, in the basements of igloos, in woodland mansions, and atop pillager outposts. ![]() Unlike Casual meeting (hookup) sites that exist in various form for past 20 or more years, something new in last 10, are hookup apps. Use Hookup Apps to find Casual Sex partner When writing info about you, try not to be boring, try to make reader on the other side interested and curious to find out something more about you, don't say too much, but also don't skip that step.Ī lot of new members, ready for fast "communication" and making ASAP "connections", highly recommended :) We don't recommend to put pictures of you 10 years ago, or something like that, just pick few of the best photos and upload in your hookup profile. Other people (women) have only those 2 parameters to decide will they hook up with you or not: your look and few sentences of what you are. ![]() Do not go into deep details, but also don't leave blank. That means that you need to pick few best pictures of you, and to write one or two simple sentences that describe exactly who you are and what you want. If you are new to Online Hookups world, keep in mind few simple instructions: Open account on one or more casual sex sites (recommended at least two, so you can play "large numbers game"). On the other side, still you can have luck and meet someone who is serious on free hookup site, there is no rules, but in general paid sites are better than free. That doesn't mean that free hookup sites are not usable, we are just giving slightly advantage to paid casual meeting sites. ![]() Some of them are free, some are paid, generally paid sites works better, due to a simple fact: when someone needs to pay $10 or $20 membership fee, they probably will not be trolling other people, post fake account, photos and so on. Go online and grab what you need! In past years we are maintaining (review, rate, track user response and votes) list of hookup sites that actually work. Online "way" is one of the best those days, because everybody is online! No matter are you, teenager or senior, all your potential sex partners are online. Use Hookup Sites to Find Casual Sex partner Still, there are very good CraigsList alternatives, but we will describe 3 other ways than seeking local sex partner using classifieds websites. In days of CraigsList personal ads, it was a bit easier, but CraigsList closed their personal ads in March / 2018. Put some money in your pocket, and start looking around since a lot of women (and men) near you seeking someone for "solving" own sexual desire. That means, that actually, it is pretty easy to find someone, you just need to know where to look and what approach to have for success. Keep in mind that in every smaller or larger community, no matter do you living in NYC, Paris, London or some smaller city or even village, there is always the same number of males and females with same need: to have sex. If you are women, then you can have totally free hookups whenever you want, since men taking care of such details :) If you meet the person you should have money for few drinks, condoms, place to stay (hotel room) or something like that. First, to know that there is no such thing as a free hookup, you need to have some money in the pocket. this time we want to focus on helping you to find sex partners near you. We already wrote about one night stands, casual sex, dating, relationships and how stuffs works. TL DR: Step 1 - Prepare, Step 2 - Find Your Local Hookup Prepare for Your Casual Hookup ![]() I used to think that you needed to be a professional, or at least be an exceptionally talented home cook in order to bake a good loaf of bread, but as it turns out, that’s so far from the truth. Why Use a Dutch Oven for Baking Bread? (And What if You Don't Have One?)Ī BEGINNER-FRIENDLY LOAF WITH PRO-LEVEL FLAVOR AND TEXTURE.How to Make Easy No-Knead Artisan Bread.A Beginner-Friendly Loaf with Pro-Level Flavor and Texture.This simple, delicious bread recipe requires minimal effort but produces a crusty, flavorful, and- maybe most importantly- forgiving loaf that even a beginner can master on their first try. This foolproof recipe will teach you how to make bakery-style bread (without the industrial-grade equipment, of course.) Almond butter or peanut butter and honey.When you make this Easy No-Knead Artisan Bread, time does all the hard work for you.Mashed avocado, olive oil, salt and pepper (toast bread first).Cheese (melted with tomatoes and pesto is the best!).Butter (of course!) or homemade raspberry freezer jam.I prefer an airtight bag though just so loaf doesn’t dry. If you want bread to maintain a crisp exterior to the following day you can store in a paper bag.Let bread cool, at least a little while before slicing otherwise bread just falls apart.I like to begin making the dough at night. Allow enough time for dough to rest, plan on at least 6 hours or up to 18 hours.Don’t use water over 120 degrees or you may kill the yeast and bread won’t rise.Use parchment paper and shape loaf into an oval shape instead of a round.No preheating the baking sheet is necessary.If you don’t have an enameled cast iron pot it can also be baked a baking sheet. Can I Bake Using Something Else Instead of Cast Iron Pot? I also recommend adding a little honey and a little extra water (as mentioned in the recipe notes). After 30 minutes, remove lid from pot and bake uncovered for 12 – 15 minutes.Īll whole wheat flour can be used but loaf will be very dense, instead I recommend using half whole wheat flour and half white flour a better texture.Remove pot from oven and with floured hands or holding ends of parchment paper, carefully drop dough into hot pot cover with lid, then immediately return pot to oven and bake 30 minutes.Cover dough with an extra large bowl and allow to rest while pot is heating.Meanwhile, turn dough out onto a well floured surface then shape dough into a ball (I like to set on parchment paper heat resistant to 450 for easier transferring, which you can place right in the pot, but this is optional). ![]() Once oven has reached 450 degrees, place a cast iron pot covered with lid into preheated oven, heat pot for 30 minutes. Cover bowl with plastic wrap and allow to rise for 12 – 18 hours.Pour in warm water and stir mixture with a wooden spoon until a shaggy ball forms (you can add a little more flour if you feel it needs it). In a large mixing bowl, whisk together flour, salt and yeast.Salt: I just use regular table salt 1 1/2 – 1 3/4 tsp is what I prefer.If you don’t have one you can test by dabbing the water against your wrist, it shouldn’t be too hot. Warm water: I like to use a thermometer just to make sure it’s not too hot.Yeast: instant yeast, active dry yeast or rapid rise yeast can be used.All-purpose flour: bread flour could be substituted if that’s what you have.Just one of those back pocket staple recipes that you’ll quickly find yourself memorizing! No Knead Bread Ingredients Who doesn’t love a good recipe with minimal ingredients? It’s also very inexpensive. Not only is it unbelievably easy and basically foolproof, but it only requires 3 pantry staples (and water). I can’t count how many times I’ve made it. An artisan style bread made in the comfort of your own home from a dough that’s prepped in minutes! It has a deliciously crisp crust and a soft chewy, moist interior. This is easily one of the best loaves of bread I have ever made and it always disappears in no time! You’ll instantly fall in love after one bite! Looking for more easy bread recipes? Try my 1-Hour Bread, or for a dessert option don’t miss out on my Banana Bread recipe (another family favorite and no mixer required!). No Knead Bread – the easiest ever homemade bread recipe ever! Zero kneading required, just a quick mix, let the dough rest overnight then the next day it’s ready to bake. ![]() ![]() Use a conversational flow: UK drill beats often have a rhythmic, choppy style, so try rapping in a more relaxed, conversational flow to match the beat. ![]() The uk drill beats are a mix of different elements, including violins and 808 bass. They’ve also been used by producers such as CZR and AXL Beats. UK drill production has also been exported to the US, where it has found a home with rappers from Brooklyn. His most recent track, ‘My Family’, features Pa Salieu and BackRoad Gee. His viral hits have soared into the top of the charts. His productions have been used by Krept & Konan and Digga D. He is credited with injecting pitched R&B vocal samples into drill. One of the major reasons UK drill has taken off in New York is Ghosty. There are now many new drill producers and outside forces are stamping their own stamp on the sound. The drill scene has grown significantly in the past four years. It’s not uncommon to hear drill producers mixing in R&B vocal samples to their beats, giving them a melancholy sound. But as the genre has become more popular in the US, it has also been influenced by R&B and Afroswing. The new wave of drill was heavily influenced by grime. They also feature gliding 808s and halftime melodies.Ī few years ago, it was hailed as the real sound of the streets. They have a darker sound than US drill and tend to cross over with trap and grime. They’ve been used by artists such as Pop Smoke and Ghosty. Originally originating in the South London district of Brixton, UK drill beats have found their way to the US. Guidance cues have a well-characterized role in axon and dendrite guidance ( Chisholm et al., 2016 Dickson, 2002 Keleman and Dickson, 2001 Tessier-Lavigne and Goodman, 1996 Zlatic et al., 2009), but their role in regulating the subcellular position of synapses has yet to be tested. An alternative mechanism relies on axon guidance cues to restrict pre-synaptic access to one of several acceptable postsynaptic targets (the ‘guidance cue’ model). elegans whereby local clustering of cell surface molecules on a postsynaptic neuron dictates synapse position ( Ango et al., 2004 Colón-Ramos et al., 2007 Klassen and Shen, 2007 Mizumoto and Shen, 2013). This model is supported by evidence in mouse and C. The first model relies on molecular differences between two subcellular domains to restrict synapse formation to one domain (the ‘labeled arbor’ model). Two distinct developmental models could explain subcellular synaptic specificity. dbd forms synapses specifically with the medial dendritic domain, and does not synapse with the lateral dendritic domain or the output domain. ![]() ( C) Electron microscopy reconstruction of dbd neurons (magenta) and A08a neurons (green) morphologies in one abdominal (A) segment (A1 left and A1 right) of the Drosophila ventral nerve cord (posterior view). ( B) Schematic of fly A08a neuron (green) with a dbd neuron (magenta) forming synapses onto the medial dendrite and an A02l neuron (orange) forming synapses onto the lateral dendrite. ( A) Schematic of mouse neocortical pyramidal neuron (green) with a martinotti neuron (magenta) forming synapses onto the distal dendrite and the bitufted neuron (orange) forming synapses onto the proximal dendrite. Although the precise subcellular positioning of synapses is important for proper circuit function, the mechanisms necessary to achieve such specificity are just starting to be explored ( Telley et al., 2016). The precise targeting of inhibitory neurons to distinct subcellular domains of their target neurons has profound effects on neural processing and circuit function by gating action potential initiation, providing a substrate for plasticity, altering mEPSP amplitude, and modulating dendritic integration ( Bloss et al., 2016 Hao et al., 2009 Miles et al., 1996 Pouille et al., 2013 Tobin et al., 2017). In mammals, cortical pyramidal neurons receive input from martinotti neurons on their distal dendrites and basket neurons on their proximal dendrites ( Huang et al., 2007) ( Figure 1A). In Drosophila, the giant fiber descending neuron targets a specific dendritic domain of the tergotrochanteral motor neuron in a fast jump escape circuit ( Godenschwege et al., 2002 Godenschwege and Murphey, 2009). In addition to specificity at a cellular level, neural circuits also exhibit synaptic specificity at the subcellular level (reviewed in Yogev and Shen, 2014). ![]() From the Drosophila larva with 10,000 neurons to the human with 80 billion neurons, all neurons are faced with the challenge of identifying the correct subset of synaptic partners among many potential target neurons. Nervous system function is determined by the precise connectivity of neurons. |
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